Threads of harm and Ethiopian queer resistance to digital violence

Content Warning: This article includes content related to mob justice, homophobia, transphobia and suicide.

Context 

In this increasingly globalised world, the internet has become an increasingly important space for social interaction, self-expression, and community-building. Yet, it is also a site of danger for marginalised communities, particularly LGBTQIA+ individuals. The online space often reflects and at times worsens offline inequalities for marginalised groups, including the LGBTQIA+ community. Globally, harassment, threats, doxxing and other forms of online gender-based violence (OGBV) are increasingly deployed to intimidate and silence LGBTQIA+ voices, and Ethiopia is no exception. This qualitative research explores the impacts of OGBV against LGBTQIA+ individuals in Ethiopia, a context where queer criminalisation, social stigma, and systemic exclusion prevail. Using an intersectional feminist lens and thematic analysis, the study uncovers the complex and multi-layered nature of OGBV in Ethiopian context.

In Ethiopia, heteropatriarchal norms are deeply rooted, and legal protections for LGBTQIA+ communities are absent. This broader culture of gender inequality shapes both offline and online realities. National data illustrate the severity of the problem: 35% of ever-married women aged 15-49 report experiencing physical, emotional or sexual violence from a partner; 68% of women agree that wife-beating can be justified; and about 65% of women in the same age group have undergone female genital mutilation (FGM). These figures highlight the normalisation of GBV, which the Center for Information Resilience has also documented in online spaces, revealing pervasive technology-facilitated GBV (TFGBV) that undermines women and girls’ participation in everyday life.

Within this broader context of systemic violence and inequality, LGBTQIA+ individuals face even greater risks. Although scarcely researched, evidence suggests that OGBV against LGBTQIA+ communities in Ethiopia is worsening, reinforced by cultural stigmas and legal frameworks that criminalise and marginalise non-heteronormative identities. As in many other contexts, the combination of offline exclusion and online hostility creates a profoundly unsafe environment for LGBTQIA+ individuals, leaving them with little protection. 

Despite the growing global recognition of OGBV against LGBTQIA+ individuals as a human rights concern, there remains a notable gap in research documenting its impacts. Even less attention is given to the ways LGBTQIA+ individuals resist, find solidarity and express joy in living their truths online. We believe understanding the impact of OGBV against LGBTQIA+ individuals and their means of resistance from a feminist lens is essential to crafting inclusive digital safety policies and advocacy strategies. 

Hence, our research aims to fill these research gaps by discussing the impacts of OGBV against LGBTQIA+ individuals and their means of resistance. By incorporating intersectional analysis, examining the coping mechanisms and means of resilience, our research hopes to contribute to a safer and more inclusive online environment for LGBTQIA+ individuals.

Despite the growing global recognition of OGBV against LGBTQIA+ individuals as a human rights concern, there remains a notable gap in research documenting its impacts. Even less attention is given to the ways LGBTQIA+ individuals resist, find solidarity and express joy in living their truths online.

Our research investigates how OGBV affects LGBTQIA+ individuals in Ethiopia and the coping mechanisms they use to resist and navigate these challenges. We sought to understand how LGBTQIA+ individuals are affected by OGBV and what their resistance looks like.

The path we took 

We spoke with members of the LGBTQIA+ community, both those living in-country and those in exile, as well as with feminist activists. In total, we conducted 58 in-depth interviews – 50 with LGBTQIA+ individuals and eight with feminist advocates. This allowed us to hear a wide range of personal experiences and perspectives.

Additionally, we analysed over 100 TikTok posts, a platform where anti-LGBTQIA+ campaigns are widely circulated. Our analysis was guided by our research questions, and the themes emerged directly from the data. Applying an intersectional feminist lens allowed us to uncover how multiple layers of marginalisation intersect and unfold within these online spaces.

The thinking that guided us

We chose intersectional feminist theory as our framework because it considers the many ways each individual experiences discrimination. It is not only a methodological but also a political perspective that discusses the inherent link between gender, race and social class as social identities that are constructed, complex and changing. It brings out the layers of identities that play a role in making the experience of each individual unique as LGBTQIA+ individuals in Ethiopia have several identities that make their lived experiences distinct i.e. urban-rural divide, ethnic identity, religion and disability. 

This framework is also used as an advocacy position. It helped us discuss the impacts and challenge the existing structures of power such as patriarchy and heteronormativity by documenting and honouring the resistance and moments of joy LGBTQIA+ communities in Ethiopia.

The ethical principle 

Throughout the study, the dignity and protection of research participants were the fundamental guiding principle. Given the sensitive nature of the topic, participants were fully informed about the study’s aims and the measures in place to protect their confidentiality, and they were invited to give informed consent freely. To further safeguard identities, pseudonyms were used, and all interviews were conducted via encrypted messaging and call services.

Data collectors were carefully vetted for experience, reputation and sensitivity to the subject matter. More information is available in the article we wrote on our methodology and ethical considerations.[1]

Threads of evidence 

The findings indicate that the evolution of OGBV against LGBTQIA+ individuals intensified with the growth of social media platforms. It is reported that initially, Facebook and YouTube were the primary social media platforms where threats and misinformation spread. The experiences reported by LGBTQIA+ individuals highlight how this violence has extended over time from platforms like Facebook to newer ones like TikTok, which are now commonly used for targeting LGBTQIA+ individuals. 

The fetish straight men have toward queer women is sickening. I get inboxes and messages from men pretending to be queer.

The study participants reported multiple forms of OGBV, including hate speech, cyberbullying, threats and catfishing. One of the most common is outing and doxxing, where names, photos and contact information of individuals presumed to be LGBTQIA+ are shared on social media:

"I'm active on TikTok, and that's where I see a lot of influence. Especially last year, there was a challenge called 'I Am Against Gibre Sodom.' I’ve seen straight men hunting down gay men on dating apps. There were even live videos of men, claimed to be gay, being beaten." (Bisexual, he/him, 18-24, SNNPR)

Many participants described receiving direct threats through social media and messaging apps, ranging from religious condemnation to explicit death threats. Some also encountered fake profiles on dating apps, created to deceive, extort money or even facilitate physical assaults: 

"The fetish straight men have toward queer women is sickening. I get inboxes and messages from men pretending to be queer. You can tell a woman would never say the things these men say. I often let them know to get a life and block them." (Bisexual, she/her, 25-34, Addis Ababa)

Evidence from our social media analysis further revealed the persistent and pervasive nature of these targeted attacks. While some content has been removed from TikTok, numerous violent and derogatory videos as well as calls for mob justice against LGBTQIA+ Ethiopians remain publicly accessible:

"There are all kinds of violence online. Insulting, threatening, hate speech or discriminatory speech. The main message during the campaign was 'kill them' and 'they should die'." (Lesbian, she/her, 25-34, Addis Ababa)

According to the study participants and our social media analysis, members of religious leaders, celebrities, TikTok influencers and anti-LGBTQIA+ groups appear to be the active perpetrators of OGBV against LGBTQIA+ individuals.

Digital violence against LGBTQIA+ individuals leaves deep and lasting emotional, psychological and social scars.

Some of the videos we reviewed for the research include:

• A TikTok video of a prominent religious leader calling on the community to stay vigilant against “Gibre sedomites,” mockingly suggesting that if they find one in their neighbourhood, they should strip them and force them to walk around the city naked.
   
• A TikTok video of a man cutting rainbow printed t-shirt that he found from his store, saying, “We will destroy the Gibre Sodoms, cut them to pieces, and if we see anyone we suspect in our neighbourhood, we will cut and break them, forcing him to believe in his manhood and convincing him he was created for a woman, and the same applies to a woman.”
   
• A TikTok video of a man shown half-naked with the word “Bushti” (faggot) handwritten on his back, being forced to walk down the street while showing visible signs of physical assault.

Digital violence against LGBTQIA+ individuals leaves deep and lasting emotional, psychological and social scars. The stories below reveal the heavy toll of these experiences and the ways people resist and navigate these harmful spaces.

The weight of the threads

The impact of digital violence on Ethiopian LGBTQIA+ social media users is profound, leading to silencing, severe emotional, psychological and social consequences. Many participants expressed feelings of fear, depression, isolation and self-doubt. Similarly, ILGA’s Accessing Connection: Bridging the LGBTI Digital Divide report highlighted that those who experience violence may leave platforms or close accounts out of fear.[2]

Impact on online presence 

The online presence of LGBTQIA+ individuals is severely impacted by the constant violence and threats they face. Throughout this research, we observed persistent digital violence directed at feminist activists and LGBTQIA+ individuals: 

"Even at that time of scary campaign, the first targets are feminist advocates because we are already labelled and associated with LGBTQ community. So, every time there is a hate campaign, you are expected to prove yourself as “anti-LGBTQ feminist” by joining the hate campaign. “Either with us or against us” is the way. Women’s rights advocates are frequently targeted both every day and during the hate campaign." (She/her, 25-34, Addis Ababa, feminist advocate)

These acts of violence took the form of threats, hacking of social media accounts, and the exposure of personal information. In some cases, profile pictures of feminist activists were circulated online with insinuations about their sexuality, often framed as attempts to discredit or shame them. 

According to the study participants, such harassment and the spread of misinformation create a climate of fear. It appears to be pushing many to withdraw from online spaces. As a result, individuals limit their engagement or abandon social media altogether:

"I used to be very active on social media. But I had to make a conscious decision to step back because of fear. Social media is a great place for connection and learning new things, but I had to choose my mental health. There is so much hate. I was constantly afraid of being outed and worried that my likes and online connections might be scrutinised, revealing my sexuality." (Lesbian, she/her, 25-34, Addis Ababa)

Similar studies also show that TFGBV has severe effects, often silencing and discouraging participation in online spaces. A 2022 poll found that 24% of women reduced internet use due to harmful content.[3]

In some cases, profile pictures of feminist activists were circulated online with insinuations about their sexuality, often framed as attempts to discredit or shame them.

Psychosocial impact

The psychological impact of the OGBV has been significant, with many reporting depression, anxiety, paranoia and a loss of self-confidence. The fear of being publicly outed and targeted online has caused some to withdraw from both social and family life, while others expressed a deep mistrust in society and their communities. One of the study participants discussed the impact as follows: 

"The August hate campaign was incredibly difficult because many of the homophobic TikTok users lived near my area, and I would see them daily. Even though I don’t have any pictures on social media, I was constantly stressed and scared to go out or meet my friends. It’s one thing to know everyone hates us, but watching celebrities and so many others join in the hate campaign made it unbearable. Some were even calling for us to be lynched in public, while streaming live videos of men being beaten, simply for being assumed to be gay. It was traumatising. That could have been me at any moment. People I went to school with, or grew up with, were joining the campaign. The hate was extreme and close. Everyone was talking about it, and it wasn’t just outside, the hate was inside our homes too." (Gay, he/him, 35-44, Sidama region)

The August campaign on platforms like TikTok intensified these experiences, amplifying fear and insecurity both among individuals who were openly targeted and those who, despite remaining anonymous, experienced heightened vulnerability. Beyond digital harassment, the content triggered anxieties of physical assault, arrest and even death: 

"I spent my days at home, becoming invisible to the world. I used to have nightmares about being attacked. Honestly, it felt like I was dead inside during that time." (Lesbian, she/her, 35-44, Oromia region)

In archiving and analysing over 100 TikTok videos produced by different groups, we documented the circulation of gruesome imagery, explicit threats and calls for mob justice. Such material re-traumatises those directly targeted and creates psychological distress. Several participants shared that they struggled with identity crises, while others disclosed feelings of hopelessness that led them to contemplate self-harm or suicide.

It’s one thing to know everyone hates us, but watching celebrities and so many others join in the hate campaign made it unbearable. Some were even calling for us to be lynched in public, while streaming live videos of men being beaten, simply for being assumed to be gay. It was traumatising.

One of the study participants who fled the country after narrowly escaping an attempted physical attack during the August hate campaign shared:

"I was so scared that my freedom of movement was limited. Leaving my house to go to work or returning home became terrifying because people would stop me, judging my style, even though straight people dress the same way. I wear what feels comfortable to me, but they tried to attack me. I feared for my life, worried they might come for me at home. My self-confidence was shattered. In the end, I had to flee the country. It felt like my only options were to fight for my life or leave to save myself." (Lesbian, she/her, 25-34, in exile)

In line with previous studies, these experiences highlight how the threat of OGBV creates an atmosphere of fear and isolation, making public spaces feel increasingly unsafe for those who do not conform to societal norms. Previous studies also show that lower self-esteem, anxiety or stress, and reluctance to voice opinions remain to be some of the few mental health impacts of TFGBV. The study also reveals that the survivors of online abuse, like non-consensual dissemination of intimate images, appear to be experiencing symptoms like those of sexual assault survivors, such as PTSD, depression and anxiety.[4] 

The experiences shared by the study participants above expose the deep emotional, social and psychological toll of digital violence. While the full weight of these experiences can only truly be known by those who survive such violence, examining the social, cultural and structural forces helps us make sense of the context in which these harms occur. Factors such as internalised homophobia, youth vulnerability, heteronormative gender norms and backlash against feminist activists show how these risks are intensified.

Internalised homophobia 

Many participants emphasised that internalised homophobia is a critical intersection in experiencing OGBV within LGBTQIA+ communities. They noted that those who have not accepted themselves often become easy targets, as their internal struggles make them more vulnerable to external violence and discrimination: 

"Because I have accepted myself, the hate doesn’t weaken me as much. But for those who haven’t found self-acceptance or lack support, the impact of hateful comments and speech is incredibly difficult. It disturbs so many lives, and I genuinely hurt for them. It’s so painful to be told you’re not human. Imagine being born human and having everyone around you insist that you aren’t. There’s nothing as heartbreaking as losing friends, family, and your community, many people are going through this. And the worst part is that you can’t even speak up or know where to turn for help. It’s just sad." (Queer, she/her, 25-34, Addis Ababa)

It’s so painful to be told you’re not human. Imagine being born human and having everyone around you insist that you aren’t.

Building on these accounts, it is important to note that guilt, shame and lack of self-acceptance can also shape how digital violence is processed. Individuals may, at times, become primary consumers of the very discourse they are trying to avoid. Absorbing misinformation, internalising harmful narratives, and even seeking out gruesome images online creates a cycle that intensifies psychological harm and isolation digital violence is designed to produce:

The misinformation deeply affects how people see themselves. Some start to believe they are cursed, carrying this belief throughout their lives, thinking things aren't working out for them because they are queer and cursed. This is what we're taught from a young age, and even when you try to live your queer life, that belief can persist due to the continuous misinformation you hear. Many leave their faith because of the hate and self-doubt it causes. (Gay, he/him, 18-24, Addis Ababa)

Youth vulnerability 

Another layer of intersectionality involves younger LGBTQIA+ communities. Participants highlighted the significant impact of online gender-based violence (OGBV) on younger queer individuals who are seeking community. For many, social media serves as an alternative space to connect and build relationships: 

"I was really scared, so I deleted my social media apps. The misinformation around me made me think I should change myself, and it pushed me into a deep depression. For those of us on our queer journeys, the fear is intense. Watching videos of people being attacked or coming across false information about ourselves is heartbreaking." (Gay, he/him, 18-24, Addis Ababa) 

In contexts where resources on gender and sexuality are inaccessible, young LGBTQIA+ individuals often turn to online spaces in search of community. However, with little to no awareness of digital security, they become easy targets for both online harassment and offline violence. The lack of formal support systems such as affirming education further compounds this vulnerability. As a result, these digital spaces function simultaneously as lifelines and as sites of harm. While these spaces offer connection and affirmation, they also expose young LGBTQIA+ Ethiopians to heightened risks of exploitation.

Heteronormative gender norms

The tension between traditional definitions of femininity and masculinity complicates identity formation and acceptance, contributing to unique experiences based on gender expression. Many participants reported that feminine-presenting men and masculine-presenting women are particularly vulnerable to physical attacks due to online stereotyping. Individuals who deviate from conventional gender norms, regardless of their gender identity or sexual orientation, are at a bigger risk of being targeted. As one participant explained, “people with a unique style, whether they are queer or not, people will just label them."

Being a woman makes it harder. I have uncles older than me who aren’t married, yet I don’t see anyone pressuring them about marriage. I don’t visit my family often because I know what they will ask.

Our social media analysis reinforced these accounts. We observed frequent comments on content creators’ posts accusing them of being gay or lesbian solely based on their appearance, mannerisms or activities. For example, soft-spoken men were often labelled as gay, while women who displayed confidence or non-traditional styles were accused of being lesbian. Such stereotyping illustrates how rigid gender expectations fuel harassment and violence. It is important to note that this impacts anyone who challenges normative expressions of gender. 

LBQ women also highlighted the additional layers of violence they face as women, particularly the societal pressures to marry and have children. Many participants shared that these expectations create significant challenges. Some have left their families and relocated to escape this pressure, while others are still seeking ways to achieve independence and leave their family homes:

"Being a woman makes it harder. I have uncles older than me who aren’t married, yet I don’t see anyone pressuring them about marriage. I don’t visit my family often because I know what they will ask. Everyone wants to know what kind of example I’m setting for my younger sisters by being single in my 30s, even though I have been in a queer relationship for over five years." (Lesbian, she/her, 25-34, Addis Ababa)

Backlash against feminist and queer activists 

The feminist advocates in Ethiopia are facing societal resistance and online backlash for allegedly being LGBTQIA+ rights advocates. Some are threatened not only for being allies but also suspected as LGBTQIA+ individuals. These issues have left feminist activists in fear and silenced their online advocacy efforts. 

During this research, two feminist activists were targeted by intense online campaigns aimed at discrediting their work. One of them ultimately had to flee the country after persistent threats. The backlash began when people saw that she followed queer individuals on her social media platforms. These incidents show a troubling regression in feminist advocacy, where social and digital hostility undermine progress and deter public engagement: 

"I was anxious all the time. People were saying, 'I know where she lives.' I couldn’t even step outside. I was angry. I felt stripped of my identity. This wasn’t something I ever imagined. Ethiopia is the only place I want to be, but I can’t. Being exiled and away from my family is incredibly hard." (She/her, 25-34, feminist advocate in exile)

Ethiopia is the only place I want to be, but I can’t. Being exiled and away from my family is incredibly hard.

In line with the findings from the UNFPA report, feminist and queer activists are disproportionately impacted by OGBV, especially when they speak out on issues like queer rights, feminism and gender equality.[5] Those who regularly use digital platforms for activism are frequently targeted, reporting experiences of OGBV, including trolling, harassment and threats.

Tying the threads together

In discourses on OGBV, the focus often rests primarily on impact, challenges and the struggle for survival. In this article, while we underscore the serious consequences of OGBV, we also hope to highlight the resistance, creativity and strength with which LGBTQIA+ Ethiopians continue to exist and build community. 

LGBTQIA+ individuals are coping and resisting through friendships, allyship, romantic relationships, collective advocacy and faith. Despite the hostility of social media spaces, queer people have created online communities where they share resources and support one another. They also maintain connections through dating apps and rely on friends and family for additional support. Even as religious institutions continue to issue threats against the community, LGBTQIA+ Ethiopians are finding ways to reconcile their faith with their sexuality. These acts of connection and support stand as powerful testimonies to the resilience and defiance of LGBTQIA+ Ethiopians in the face of persistent hostility.

For many participants, the strategies they used to cope with OGBV became acts of resistance:

"I have been through a lot. Even attempted suicide because of the societal pressure and hate. But I came to realise I am born this way. Accepting myself has given me some sense of freedom. I chose myself. I reconciled with myself." (Gay, he/him, 25-34, Somali region) 

"I have little hope that Ethiopia will change. My hope is because of my girlfriend. I really think I am living for her. She is my hope. As long as I am with her, I can survive. We have sacrificed so much together. Even when there is killing and attack, I am just going to wait my turn while loving her." (Lesbian, she/her, 35-44, Oromia region) 

"Just like straight people, queer people also want love, respect, a place to belong, family and acceptance. I know I love my God, and my love for a man doesn’t diminish that. I find peace in this understanding. My resistance comes from knowing that my feelings are an expression of love. I don’t attach myself to anything but God. And until my last day on earth, even if I remain single, this is who I am." (Gay, he/they, 25-34, Oromia region)

"A repeated lie can start to feel like the truth. The more I saw how many people hated me, the more I began to feel like a criminal. At times, I even wondered if God was punishing me when things didn’t go well in other areas of my life. But I worked on myself, I know God created me in His image. I have so much that others don’t. I am my own role model. Through all of this, I know I can rely on myself. The work I’ve done on myself is my greatest victory." (Gay, he/him, 18-24, Harari region) 

This study highlights how ongoing resistance to OGBV points to the urgent need for intersectional and human-centred solutions. Meaningful responses must look beyond punishment and address the deeper causes such as social stigma, legal exclusion, religious fundamentalism and limited digital literacy. There is also a critical need to amplify LGBTQIA+ voices in shaping technology policy, strengthening mental health support and advancing human rights discourse in Ethiopia.

Accepting myself has given me some sense of freedom.

Weaving the way forward

The scale and intensity of the harms can make solutions seem almost impossible. However, these are some steps we believe that can be taken:

Increased regulation and policy: Implement stronger social media guidelines and policies, especially for content in local languages like Amharic, to ensure rapid removal of hate speech and violent content.

Advocacy and community building: Strengthen local and online LGBTQIA+ communities, raise awareness, cultivate allies and launch educational campaigns to challenge harmful stereotypes and misinformation.

Mental health and psychosocial support services: Expand accessible, LGBTQIA+-affirming mental health services, trauma-informed care, queer-friendly counsellors and peer-led support networks to address psychological harm caused by OGBV.

Digital security awareness: Provide continuous support and capacity-building on digital safety measures to protect queer individuals and rights advocates from online harassment and violence.

Collaboration with local and international organisations: Build partnerships to drive policy change, establish emergency support networks and leverage local expertise for culturally tailored support.

Further study on the matter: Conduct more research on OGBV in Ethiopia to inform inclusive, responsive strategies that address power, vulnerability and the role of technology.
 

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The backbones of the study

We extend our heartfelt gratitude to community members for their trust, vulnerability and invaluable time. Your openness has been a source of strength for this research. We also thank the activists on the ground for their unwavering support and dedication.

To those whose names we cannot mention, your behind-the-scenes efforts in gathering secondary data and assisting in various capacities have been instrumental in shaping this work. Most importantly, we acknowledge that no one can truly grasp the full depth of these painful experiences. This work is not a voice for the voiceless; it is our hope that it reflects the resistance of those whose lives are shaped by these realities.